Alchemy (from Arabic: al-kīmiyā) was an ancient branch of
natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition practiced
throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia, originating in Greco-Roman Egypt in the
first few centuries.
Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain
materials. Common aims were chrysopoeia,
the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble
metals" (particularly gold); the creation of an elixir of immortality; the
creation of panaceas able to cure any disease; and the development of an
alkahest, a universal solvent. The
perfection of the human body and soul was thought to permit or result from the
alchemical magnum opus and, in the Hellenistic and Western mystery tradition,
the achievement of gnosis. In Europe, the creation of a philosopher's stone was
variously connected with all of these projects.
In English, the term is often limited to descriptions of
European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the Far East, the Indian
subcontinent, and the Muslim world. In
Europe, following the 12th-century Renaissance produced by the translation of
Medieval Islamic works on science and the rediscovery of Aristotelian
philosophy, alchemists played a significant role in early modern science
(particularly chemistry and medicine). Islamic and European alchemists
developed a structure of basic laboratory techniques, theory, terminology, and
experimental method, some of which are still in use today. However, they
continued antiquity's belief in four elements and guarded their work in secrecy
including cyphers and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by Hermetic
principles related to magic, mythology, and religion.
Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an
examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual
aspects, despite the arguments of scholars like Holmyard and von Franz that
they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians
of the physical sciences who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry,
medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in
which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism,
psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also
made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which
von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of
Greek philosophy that was mixed with Egyptian and Mesopotamian technology, numerous sources have stressed an integration
of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as
Pseudo-Democritus's first-century AD On Physical and Mystical Matters (Greek:
Physika kai Mystika).
Although alchemy is popularly associated with magic,
historian Lawrence M. Principe argues that recent historical research has
revealed that medieval and early modern alchemy embraced a much more varied set
of ideas, goals, techniques, and practices:
Most readers probably
are aware of several common claims about alchemy—for example, ... that it is
akin to magic, or that its practice then or now is essentially deceptive. These
ideas about alchemy emerged during the eighteenth century or after. While each
of them might have limited validity within a narrow context, none of them is an
accurate depiction of alchemy in general."[
Etymology
The word alchemy comes from Old French alquemie, alkimie,
used in Medieval Latin as alchymia. This name was itself brought from the
Arabic word al-kīmiyā (الكيمياء or الخيمياء) composed of two parts: the Late
Greek term khēmeía (χημεία), khēmía (χημία), meaning 'to fuse or cast a metal',
and the Arabic definite article al- (الـ), meaning 'The'. Together this association can be interpreted
as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or
original form'. Its roots can be traced to the Egyptian name kēme (hieroglyphic
𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 khmi),
meaning 'black earth' which refers to the fertile and auriferous soil of the
Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand.
According to the Egyptologist Wallis Budge, the Arabic word
al-kīmiyaʾ actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from
the Coptic word for "Egypt", kēme (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval
Bohairic dialect of Coptic, khēme). This Coptic word derives from Demotic kmỉ,
itself from ancient Egyptian kmt. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both
the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black
Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert);
so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black
arts". However, according to Mahn, this theory may be an example of folk
etymology. Assuming an Egyptian origin,
chemistry is defined as follows:
Chemistry, from the ancient Egyptian word "khēmia"
meaning transmutation of earth, is the science of matter at the atomic to
molecular scale, dealing primarily with collections of atoms, such as
molecules, crystals, and metals.
Thus, according to Budge and others, chemistry derives from
an Egyptian word khemein or khēmia, "preparation of black powder",
ultimately derived from the name khem, Egypt. A decree of Diocletian, written
about 300 AD in Greek, speaks against "the ancient writings of the
Egyptians, which treat of the khēmia transmutation of gold and silver".
The Medieval Latin form was influenced by Greek chymeia
(χυμεία) meaning 'mixture' and referring to pharmaceutical chemistry.
History
Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions
spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general
penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual
influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least
three major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their
earlier stages: Chinese alchemy, centered in China and its zone of cultural
influence; Indian alchemy, centered on the Indian subcontinent; and Western
alchemy, which occurred around the Mediterranean and whose center has shifted
over the millennia from Greco-Roman Egypt, to the Islamic world, and finally
medieval Europe. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoism and Indian
alchemy with the Dharmic faiths, whereas Western alchemy developed its own
philosophical system that was largely independent of, but influenced by,
various Western religions. It is still an open question whether these three
strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.
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