East Asia
Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation
of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection
to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to
the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the
hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's
stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two
traditions may have had more in common than initially appears.
Black powder may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, Chinese alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a potion for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in fireworks in China by the 10th century, it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241 and in Europe by the 14th century.
Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of
traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion.In the early
Song dynasty, followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class)
would ingest mercuric sulfide, which, though tolerable in low levels, led many
to suicide. Thinking that this
consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the
ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external
sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the qi, etc.)
Medieval Europe
The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to
11 February 1144, with the completion of Robert of Chester's translation of the
Arabic Book of the Composition of Alchemy. Although European craftsmen and
technicians preexisted, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy was unknown in
Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts
concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century
Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath.
Translations of the time included the
Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and al-Razi. These brought with
them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous
Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples.
Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made
strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism,
thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century
St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and
encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter
Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of
Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West.
In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of
analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions
when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to
reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking.
Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical
knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin
contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by
that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger
Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the
newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known
to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and
commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes
and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared
these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the
transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the
15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a
common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished
alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts
have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas.
Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety
of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his
Great Work (Latin: Opus Majus) for Pope Clement IV as part of a project towards
rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of
his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and
he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and
astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his
contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian
theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the
prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting
the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged
the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that
the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers,
and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the
theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science
and medicine. In later European legend,
however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus,
he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its
owner's questions.
Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes
identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a
staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and
renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical
operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which
they were described. By the end of the
13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief.
Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say,
they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could
have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of
purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They
believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and
they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of
coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists
practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made
observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire
philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within
himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could
be reunited with God.
In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to
Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars.
Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed
social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted
unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317
edict, Spondent quas non exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation
made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of
multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a license to attempt to
make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV).
These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical
charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an
increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of
death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John
of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of
Villanova.
Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist, but a good example
of pseudepigraphy, the practice of giving your works the name of someone else,
usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and
legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were
many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved
around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone. His work spends a great deal of
time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the
formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at
gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded
the philosopher's stone. Through the
14th and 15th centuries, alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on
looking for the philosophers' stone. Bernard Trevisan and George Ripley made
similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and symbolism led to wide
variations in interpretation of the art.
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