Juneteenth (officially
Juneteenth National Independence Day and historically known as
Jubilee Day, Black Independence Day, and Emancipation Day)
is a federal holiday in the United States commemorating emancipation
of enslaved African Americans. It is also often observed for
celebrating African American culture. Originating in Galveston,
Texas, it has been celebrated annually on June 19 in various parts of
the United States since 1866. The day was recognized as a federal
holiday on June 17, 2021, when President Joe Biden signed the
Juneteenth National Independence Day Act into law.
Juneteenth's commemoration is on the anniversary date of the June 19,
1865, announcement of General Order No. 3 by Union Army general
Gordon Granger, proclaiming and enforcing freedom of enslaved people
in Texas, which was then the last state of the former Confederacy in
which slavery was still being permitted by the state government.
President Abraham Lincoln's
Emancipation Proclamation of 1862 had officially outlawed slavery in
Texas and the other states that had rebelled against the Union almost
two and a half years earlier. Enforcement of the Proclamation
generally relied on the advance of Union troops. Texas, as the most
remote of the slave states, had seen an expansion of slavery and had
a low presence of Union troops as the American Civil War ended; thus,
enforcement there had been slow and inconsistent prior to Granger's
announcement. Although the Emancipation Proclamation declared an end
to slavery in the Confederate States, slavery was still legal and
practiced in two Union border states – Delaware and Kentucky –
until December 6, 1865, when ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment
to the Constitution abolished chattel slavery nationwide.
Additionally, Indian Territories that had sided with the Confederacy,
namely the Choctaw, were the last to release those enslaved, in 1866.
Celebrations date to 1866, at first
involving church-centered community gatherings in Texas. It spread
across the South and became more commercialized in the 1920s and
1930s, often centering on a food festival. Participants in the Great
Migration out of the South carried their celebrations to other parts
of the country. During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, these
celebrations were eclipsed by the nonviolent determination to achieve
civil rights, but grew in popularity again in the 1970s with a focus
on African-American freedom and African-American arts. Beginning with
Texas by proclamation in 1938, and by legislation in 1979, 49 U.S.
states and the District of Columbia, have formally recognized the
holiday in various ways.
Modern observance is primarily in local
celebrations. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation
Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as "Swing
Low, Sweet Chariot" and "Lift Every Voice and Sing",
and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph
Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include rodeos, street fairs,
cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical reenactments, and
Miss Juneteenth contests. Juneteenth is also celebrated by the
Mascogos, descendants of Black Seminoles who escaped from slavery in
1852 and settled in Coahuila, Mexico. Juneteenth is the first new
federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was declared a
holiday in 1983.
History
During the American Civil War
(1861–1865), emancipation came at different times to various places
in the Southern United States. Large celebrations of emancipation,
often called Jubilees (recalling the biblical Jubilee in which slaves
were freed) occurred on September 22, January 1, July 4, August 1,
April 6, and November 1, among other dates. In Texas, emancipation
came late: enforced in Texas on June 19, 1865, as the southern
rebellion collapsed, emancipation became a well known cause of
celebration. While June 19, 1865, was not actually the 'end of
slavery' even in Texas (like the Emancipation Proclamation,
itself, General Gordon's military order had to be acted upon) and
although it has competed with other dates for emancipation's
celebration, ordinary African Americans created, preserved, and
spread a shared commemoration of slavery's wartime demise across the
United States.
End of slavery in Texas
President Abraham Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862. It became effective
on January 1, 1863, declaring that all enslaved persons in the
Confederate States of America in rebellion and not in Union hands
were freed.
More isolated geographically, planters
and other slaveholders had migrated into Texas from eastern states to
escape the fighting, and many brought enslaved people with them,
increasing by the thousands the enslaved population in the state at
the end of the Civil War. Although most lived in rural areas, more
than 1,000 resided in both Galveston and Houston by 1860, with
several hundred in other large towns. By 1865, there were an
estimated 250,000 enslaved people in Texas.
Despite the surrender of General Robert
E. Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865, the western Army
of the Trans-Mississippi did not surrender until June 2. On the
morning of June 19, 1865, Union Major General Gordon Granger arrived
on the island of Galveston, Texas, to take command of the more than
2,000 federal troops recently landed in the department of Texas to
enforce the emancipation of its slaves and oversee a peaceful
transition of power, additionally nullifying all laws passed within
Texas during the war by Confederate lawmakers. The Texas Historical
Commission and Galveston Historical Foundation report that Granger’s
men marched throughout Galveston reading General Order No. 3 first at
Union Army Headquarters at the Osterman Building (formerly at the
intersection of Strand Street and 22nd Street, since demolished), in
the Strand Historic District. Next they marched to the 1861 Customs
House and Courthouse before finally marching to the Negro Church on
Broadway, since renamed Reedy Chapel-AME Church. The order informed
all Texans that, in accordance with a Proclamation from the Executive
of the United States, all slaves were free:
The people of Texas are informed
that, in accordance with a proclamation from the Executive of the
United States, all slaves are free. This involves an absolute
equality of personal rights and rights of property between former
masters and slaves, and the connection heretofore existing between
them becomes that between employer and hired labor. The freedmen are
advised to remain quietly at their present homes and work for wages.
They are informed that they will not be allowed to collect at
military posts and that they will not be supported in idleness either
there or elsewhere.
Longstanding urban legend places the
historic reading of General Order No. 3 at Ashton Villa; however, no
extant historical evidence supports such claims. On June 21, 2014,
the Galveston Historical Foundation and Texas Historical Commission
erected a Juneteenth plaque where the Osterman Building once stood
signifying the location of Major General Granger's Union Headquarters
and subsequent issuance of his general orders.
Although this event has come to be
celebrated as the end of slavery, emancipation for the remaining
enslaved in two Union border states (Delaware and Kentucky), would
not come until several months later, on December 18, 1865, when
ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment was announced. The freedom
of formerly enslaved people in Texas was given state law status in a
series of Texas Supreme Court decisions between 1868 and 1874.
Early celebrations
Formerly enslaved people in Galveston
celebrated after the announcement. On June 19, 1866, one year after
the announcement, freedmen in Texas organized the first of what
became the annual celebration of "Jubilee Day".
Early celebrations were used as political rallies to give voting
instructions to newly freed African Americans. Early independence
celebrations often occurred on January 1 or 4.
In some cities, black people were
barred by Democrats from using public parks because of
state-sponsored segregation of facilities. Across parts of Texas,
freed people pooled their funds to purchase land to hold their
celebrations. The day was first celebrated in Austin in 1867 under
the auspices of the Freedmen's Bureau, and it had been listed on a
"calendar of public events" by 1872. That year,
black leaders in Texas raised $1,000 for the purchase of 10 acres (4
ha) of land to celebrate Juneteenth, today known as Houston's
Emancipation Park. The observation was soon drawing thousands of
attendees across Texas; an estimated 30,000 black people celebrated
at Booker T. Washington Park in Limestone County, Texas, established
in 1898 for Juneteenth celebrations. Attendance at the Limestone
County event fell off sharply in the wake of the 1981 drowning of
three local teenagers while in the custody of a Limestone County
sheriff’s deputy, a reserve deputy, and a probation officer. By the
1890s, Jubilee Day had become known as Juneteenth.
Jim Crow
In the early 20th century, economic and
political forces led to a decline in Juneteenth celebrations. From
1890 to 1908, Texas and all former Confederate states passed new
constitutions or amendments that effectively disenfranchised black
people, excluding them from the political process. White-dominated
state legislatures passed Jim Crow laws imposing second-class status.
Gladys L. Knight writes the decline in celebration was in part
because "upwardly mobile blacks [...] were ashamed of their
slave past and aspired to assimilate into mainstream culture. Younger
generations of blacks, becoming further removed from slavery were
occupied with school [...] and other pursuits." Others who
migrated to the Northern United States couldn't take time off or
simply dropped the celebration.
The Great Depression forced many black
people off farms and into the cities to find work, where they had
difficulty taking the day off to celebrate. From 1936 to 1951, the
Texas State Fair served as a destination for celebrating the holiday,
contributing to its revival. In 1936, an estimated 150,000 to 200,000
people joined the holiday's celebration in Dallas. In 1938, Governor
of Texas James V. Allred issued a proclamation stating in part:
Whereas, the Negroes in the
State of Texas observe June 19 as the official day for the
celebration of Emancipation from slavery; and
Whereas, June 19, 1865, was the
date when General Robert [sic] S. Granger, who had command of the
Military District of Texas, issued a proclamation notifying the
Negroes of Texas that they were free; and
Whereas, since that time, Texas
Negroes have observed this day with suitable holiday ceremony, except
during such years when the day comes on a Sunday; when the Governor
of the State is asked to proclaim the following day as the holiday
for State observance by Negroes; and
Whereas, June 19, 1938, this
year falls on Sunday; NOW, THEREFORE, I, JAMES V. ALLRED, Governor of
the State of Texas, do set aside and proclaim the day of June 20,
1938, as the date for observance of EMANCIPATION DAY
in Texas, and do urge all
members of the Negro race in Texas to observe the day in a manner
appropriate to its importance to them.
Seventy thousand people attended a
"Juneteenth Jamboree" in 1951. From 1940 through
1970, in the second wave of the Great Migration, more than five
million black people left Texas, Louisiana and other parts of the
South for the North and the West Coast. As historian Isabel Wilkerson
writes, "The people from Texas took Juneteenth Day to Los
Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, and other places they went." In
1945, Juneteenth was introduced in San Francisco by an immigrant from
Texas, Wesley Johnson.
During the 1950s and 1960s, the Civil
Rights Movement focused the attention of African Americans on
expanding freedom and integrating. As a result, observations of the
holiday declined again (though it was still celebrated in Texas).
Revival
Juneteenth soon saw a revival as black
people began tying their struggle to that of ending slavery. In
Atlanta, some campaigners for equality wore Juneteenth buttons.
During the 1968 Poor People's Campaign to Washington, DC, called by
Rev. Ralph Abernathy, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference
made June 19 the "Solidarity Day of the Poor People’s
Campaign". In the subsequent revival, large celebrations in
Minneapolis and Milwaukee emerged, as well as across the Eastern
United States. In 1974, Houston began holding large-scale
celebrations again, and Fort Worth, Texas, followed the next year.
Around 30,000 people attended festivities at Sycamore Park in Fort
Worth the following year. The 1978 Milwaukee celebration was
described as drawing over 100,000 attendees. In the late 1980s,
there were major celebrations of Juneteenth in California, Wisconsin,
Illinois, Georgia, and Washington, D.C. In 2016, Opal Lee, often
referred to as the "grandmother of Juneteenth", walked
from Fort Worth, Texas to Washington D.C. to advocate for a federal
holiday.
Prayer breakfast and commemorative
celebration
In 1979, Democratic State
Representative Al Edwards of Houston, Texas, successfully sponsored
legislation to make Juneteenth a paid Texas state holiday. The same
year, he hosted the inaugural Al Edwards prayer breakfast and
commemorative celebration on the grounds of the 1859 home, Ashton
Villa. As one of the few existing buildings from the Civil War era
and popular in local myth and legend as the location of Major General
Granger’s announcement, Edwards's annual celebration includes a
local historian dressed as the Union general reading General Order
No. 3 from the second story balcony of the home. The Emancipation
Proclamation is also read and speeches are made. Representative Al
Edwards died of natural causes April 29, 2020, at the age of 83, but
the annual prayer breakfast and commemorative celebration continued
at Ashton Villa, with the late legislator's son Jason Edwards
speaking in his father’s place.
Al Edwards statue
Official recognition
In the late 1970s, when the Texas
Legislature declared Juneteenth a "holiday of significance
[...] particularly to the blacks of Texas," it became the
first state to establish Juneteenth as a state holiday. The bill
passed through the Texas Legislature in 1979 and was officially made
a state holiday on January 1, 1980. Juneteenth is a "partial
staffing" holiday in Texas; government offices do not close
but agencies may operate with reduced staff, and employees may either
celebrate this holiday or substitute it with one of four "optional
holidays" recognized by Texas.
In 1996, the first legislation to
recognize "Juneteenth Independence Day" was
introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives, H.J. Res. 195,
sponsored by Barbara-Rose Collins (D-MI). In 1997, Congress
recognized the day through Senate Joint Resolution 11 and House Joint
Resolution 56. In 2013, the U.S. Senate passed Senate Resolution 175,
acknowledging Lula Briggs Galloway (late president of the National
Association of Juneteenth Lineage), who "successfully worked
to bring national recognition to Juneteenth Independence Day",
and the continued leadership of the National Juneteenth Observance
Foundation.
In June 2019, Governor of Pennsylvania
Tom Wolf recognized Juneteenth as a holiday in the state. In 2020,
state governors of Virginia, New York, and New Jersey signed an
executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for
state employees. In 2021, Governor of Oregon Kate Brown signed an
executive order recognizing Juneteenth as a paid day of leave for
state employees. On June 16, 2021, Illinois Governor J. B. Pritzker
signed House Bill 3922, establishing Juneteenth as a paid state
holiday starting in 2022; since 2003, it had been a state ceremonial
observance in Illinois.
Activists had long been pushing
Congress to recognize Juneteenth.[64] Organizations such as the
National Juneteenth Observance Foundation sought a Congressional
designation of Juneteenth as a national day of observance.[23] When
it was officially made a federal holiday in June of 2021, it became
one of five date-specific federal holidays along with New Year's Day
(January 1), Independence Day (July 4), Veterans Day (November 11),
and Christmas Day (December 25). Juneteenth will coincide with
Father's Day in 2022, 2033, 2039, 2044, and 2050. Juneteenth is the
first new federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was
declared a holiday in 1986.
Pop culture and mass media
Since the 1980s and 1990s, the holiday
has been more widely celebrated among African-American communities
and has seen increasing mainstream attention in the US. In 1991,
there was an exhibition by the Anacostia Museum (part of the
Smithsonian Institution) called “Juneteenth ’91, Freedom
Revisited”. In 1994, a group of community leaders gathered at
Christian Unity Baptist Church in New Orleans to work for greater
national celebration of Juneteenth. Expatriates have celebrated it
in cities abroad, such as Paris. Some US military bases in other
countries sponsor celebrations, in addition to those of private
groups. In 1999, Ralph Ellison's novel Juneteenth was published,
increasing recognition of the holiday. By 2006, at least 200 cities
celebrated the day.
In 1997, activist Ben Haith created the
Juneteenth flag, which was further refined by illustrator Lisa Jeanne
Graf. In 2000, the flag was first hoisted at the Roxbury Heritage
State Park in Boston by Haith. The star at the center represents
Texas being the last state where its local African American slaves
were freed, and the extension of freedom for all African Americans
throughout the whole nation. The burst around the star represents a
nova and the curve represents a horizon, standing for a new era for
African Americans. The red, white, and blue colors represent the
American flag, which shows that African Americans and their enslaved
ancestors are Americans, and the national belief in liberty and
justice for all citizens. The Pan-African flag is also displayed
during the holiday.
The holiday has gained mainstream
awareness outside African-American communities through depictions in
entertainment media, such as episodes of TV series Atlanta (2016) and
Black-ish (2017), the latter of which featured musical numbers about
the holiday by Aloe Blacc, The Roots, and Fonzworth Bentley. In
2018, Apple added Juneteenth to its calendars in iOS under official
U.S. Holidays. Some private companies have adopted Juneteenth as a
paid day off for employees, while others have officially marked the
day in other ways, such as moments of silence. In 2020, several
American corporations and educational institutions, including
Twitter, the National Football League, Nike, announced that they
would treat Juneteenth as a company holiday, providing a paid day off
to their workers, and Google Calendar added Juneteenth to its U.S.
Holidays calendar. Also in 2020, a number of major universities
formally recognized Juneteenth, either as a "day of
reflection" or as a university holiday with paid time off
for faculty and staff.
In 2020, in the midst of the COVID-19
pandemic and the worldwide protests sparked by the police killing of
George Floyd, controversy ensued when President Donald Trump
scheduled his first political rally since the pandemic's outbreak for
Juneteenth in Tulsa, Oklahoma, site of the 1921 race massacre in the
Greenwood district. In response, he rescheduled the rally for the
following day. In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Trump
said, "I did something good: I made Juneteenth very famous.
It’s actually an important event, an important time. But nobody had
ever heard of it until I mentioned it."
Legal observance
Juneteenth is a federal holiday in the
United States. For decades, activists and congress members (led by
many African Americans) proposed legislation, advocated for, and
built support for state and national observances. During his
successful campaign for president in June 2020, then former Vice
President Joe Biden publicly celebrated the holiday. President
Donald Trump, during his campaign for reelection, later added making
the day a national holiday part of his “Platinum Plan for Black
America". Spurred on by the advocates and the Congressional
Black Caucus, on June 15, 2021, the Senate unanimously passed the
Juneteenth National Independence Day Act, establishing Juneteenth as
a federal holiday; it subsequently passed through the House of
Representatives by a 415–14 vote on June 16. President Joe Biden
signed the bill on June 17, 2021, making Juneteenth the eleventh
American federal holiday and the first to obtain legal observance as
a federal holiday since Martin Luther King Jr. Day was designated in
1983.
State and local
Most states recognize the holiday in
some way, either as a ceremonial observance or a state holiday. Texas
was the first state to recognize the date, in 1980. By 2002, eight
states officially recognized Juneteenth and four years later 15
states recognized the holiday. By 2008, nearly half of states
observed the holiday as a ceremonial observance. By 2019, 47 states
and the District of Columbia recognized Juneteenth, although as of
2020 only Texas had adopted the holiday as a paid holiday for state
employees. By June 2021, Juneteenth was also a paid state holiday in
New York, Washington, and Virginia. In 2020, Massachusetts Governor
Charles Baker issued a proclamation that the day would be marked as
"Juneteenth Independence Day". This followed the
filing of bills by both the House and Senate to make Juneteenth a
state holiday. Baker did not comment on these bills specifically, but
promised to grant the observance of Juneteenth greater importance.
On June 16 2021, Illinois adopted a law changing its ceremonial
holiday to a paid state holiday.
States that have not established
Juneteenth as an observance or holiday include North Dakota and South
Dakota. South Dakota Governor Kristi Noem proclaimed June 19, 2020,
as Juneteenth Day, spurring calls for it to be recognized annually,
rather than just for 2020. Similarly, North Dakota Governor Doug
Burgum announced that the state would formally recognize June 19,
2020, as Juneteenth Day in North Dakota for the year 2020.
The state of Hawaii recognizes
Juneteenth as of 2021. In June of 2020, Hawaii's first African
American Miss Hawaii USA, Samantha Neyland, founded Hawaii for
Juneteenth, a coalition and grassroots movement. Hawaii for
Juneteenth lobbied the Hawaii State Legislature into successfully
passing SB939, introduced by Senator Glenn Wakai and signed into law
by Governor David Ige on June 16, 2021.
Some cities and counties have
recognized Juneteenth through proclamation. In 2020, Juneteenth was
formally recognized by New York City (as an annual official city
holiday and public school holiday, starting in 2021), although in
2022 it will be observed as a school holiday on June 20. Cook
County, Illinois, adopted an ordinance to make Juneteenth a paid
county holiday. The City and County of Honolulu recognizes it as an
"annual day of honor and
reflection", and Portland, Oregon (as a day of
remembrance and action and a paid holiday for city employees).
Celebrations
The holiday is considered the
"longest-running African-American holiday" and has been
called "America's second Independence Day".
Juneteenth is usually celebrated on the third Saturday in June.
Historian Mitch Kachun considers that celebrations of the end of
slavery have three goals: "to celebrate, to educate, and to
agitate". Early celebrations consisted of baseball, fishing,
and rodeos. African Americans were often prohibited from using public
facilities for their celebrations, so they were often held at
churches or near water. Celebrations were also characterized by
elaborate large meals and people wearing their best clothing. It was
common for former slaves and their descendants to make a pilgrimage
to Galveston. As early festivals received news coverage, Janice Hume
and Noah Arceneaux consider that they "served to assimilate
African-American memories within the dominant 'American story'. "
Observance today is primarily in local
celebrations. In many places, Juneteenth has become a multicultural
holiday. Traditions include public readings of the Emancipation
Proclamation, singing traditional songs such as "Swing Low,
Sweet Chariot" and "Lift Every Voice and Sing",
and reading of works by noted African-American writers, such as Ralph
Ellison and Maya Angelou. Celebrations include picnics, rodeos,
street fairs, cookouts, family reunions, park parties, historical
reenactments, blues festivals and Miss Juneteenth contests.
Strawberry soda is a traditional drink associated with the
celebration. The Mascogos, the descendants of Black Seminoles, who
have resided in Coahuila, Mexico, since 1852, also celebrate
Juneteenth.
Juneteenth celebrations often include
lectures and exhibitions on African-American culture. The modern
holiday places much emphasis upon teaching about African-American
heritage. Karen M. Thomas wrote in Emerge that "community
leaders have latched on to [Juneteenth] to help instill a sense of
heritage and pride in black youth." Celebrations are
commonly accompanied by voter registration efforts, the performing of
plays, and retelling stories. The holiday is also a celebration of
soul food and other food with African-American influences. In Tourism
Review International, Anne Donovan and Karen DeBres write that
"Barbecue is the centerpiece of most Juneteenth
celebrations".