James VI and I (James Charles
Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as
James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I
from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603
until his death in 1625. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were
individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciaries,
and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union.
James was the son of Mary, Queen of
Scots, and a great-great-grandson of Henry VII, King of England and
Lord of Ireland, and thus a potential successor to all three thrones.
He succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months,
after his mother was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four
different regents governed during his minority, which ended
officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his
government until 1583. In 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch
of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died childless. He continued
to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known as the
Jacobean era, until his death. After the Union of the Crowns, he
based himself in England (the largest of the three realms) from 1603,
returning to Scotland only once, in 1617, and styled himself "King
of Great Britain and Ireland". He was a major advocate of a
single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the
Plantation of Ulster and English colonization of the Americas began.
At 57 years and 246 days, James's reign
in Scotland was the longest of any Scottish monarch. He achieved most
of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England,
including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the
English Parliament. Under James, the "Golden Age" of
Elizabethan literature and drama continued, with writers such as
William Shakespeare, John Donne, Ben Jonson, and Sir Francis Bacon
contributing to a flourishing literary culture. James himself was a
prolific writer, authoring works such as Daemonologie (1597), The
True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), and Basilikon Doron (1599). He
sponsored the translation of the Bible into English later named after
him, the Authorized King James Version. Sir Anthony Weldon claimed
that James had been termed "the wisest fool in Christendom",
an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter
half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise James's
reputation and treat him as a serious and thoughtful monarch. He was
strongly committed to a peace policy, and tried to avoid involvement
in religious wars, especially the Thirty Years' War that devastated
much of Central Europe. He tried but failed to prevent the rise of
hawkish elements in the English Parliament who wanted war with Spain.
He was succeeded by his second son, Charles.
Childhood
Birth
James was the only son of Mary, Queen
of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both
Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England
through Margaret Tudor, the older sister of Henry VIII. Mary's rule
over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman
Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. During Mary's
and Darnley's difficult marriage, Darnley secretly allied himself
with the rebels and conspired in the murder of the queen's private
secretary, David Rizzio, just three months before James's birth.
James was born on 19 June 1566 at
Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the
monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great
Steward of Scotland. Five days later, an English diplomat Henry
Killigrew saw the queen, who had not fully recovered and could only
speak faintly. The baby was "sucking at his nurse"
and was "well proportioned and like to prove a goodly
prince". He was baptized "Charles James" or
"James Charles" on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic
ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of
France (represented by John, Count of Brienne), Elizabeth I of
England (represented by the Earl of Bedford), and Emmanuel Philibert,
Duke of Savoy (represented by ambassador Philibert du Croc). Mary
refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as
"a pocky priest", spit in the child's mouth, as was
then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman
Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, to
which the English guests took offence, thinking the satyrs "done
against them".
Lord Darnley was murdered on 10
February 1567 at Kirk o' Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for the
killing of Rizzio. James inherited his father's titles of Duke of
Albany and Earl of Ross. Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage
on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely
suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling
towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and
imprisoned her in Lochleven Castle; she never saw her son again. She
was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James
and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother James Stewart, Earl of
Moray, as regent.
Regencies
The care of James was entrusted to the
Earl and Countess of Mar, "to be conserved, nursed, and
up-brought" in the security of Stirling Castle. James was
anointed King of Scotland at the age of thirteen months at the Church
of the Holy Rude in Stirling, by Adam Bothwell, Bishop of Orkney, on
29 July 1567. The sermon at the coronation was preached by John Knox.
In accordance with the religious beliefs of most of the Scottish
ruling class, James was brought up as a member of the Protestant
Church of Scotland, the Kirk. The Privy Council selected George
Buchanan, Peter Young, Adam Erskine (lay abbot of Cambuskenneth), and
David Erskine (lay abbot of Dryburgh) as James's preceptors or
tutors. As the young king's senior tutor, Buchanan subjected James to
regular beatings but also instilled in him a lifelong passion for
literature and learning. Buchanan sought to turn James into a
God-fearing, Protestant king who accepted the limitations of
monarchy, as outlined in his treatise De Jure Regni apud Scotos.
In 1568, Mary escaped from Lochleven
Castle, leading to several years of sporadic violence. The Earl of
Moray defeated Mary's troops at the Battle of Langside, forcing her
to flee to England, where she was subsequently kept in confinement by
Elizabeth. On 23 January 1570, Moray was assassinated by James
Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. The next regent was James's paternal
grandfather, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, who was carried
fatally wounded into Stirling Castle a year later after a raid by
Mary's supporters. His successor, the Earl of Mar, "took a
vehement sickness" and died on 28 October 1572 at Stirling.
Mar's illness, wrote James Melville, followed a banquet at Dalkeith
Palace given by James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton.
Morton was elected to Mar's office and
proved in many ways the most effective of James's regents, but he
made enemies by his rapacity. He fell from favor when Frenchman Esmé
Stewart, Sieur d'Aubigny, first cousin of James's father Lord Darnley
and future Earl of Lennox, arrived in Scotland and quickly
established himself as the first of James's powerful favorites. James
was proclaimed an adult ruler in a ceremony of Entry to Edinburgh on
19 October 1579. Morton was executed on 2 June 1581, belatedly
charged with complicity in Darnley's murder. On 8 August, James made
Lennox the only duke in Scotland. The king, then fifteen years old,
remained under the influence of Lennox for about one more year.
Rule in Scotland
Lennox was a Protestant convert, but he
was distrusted by Scottish Calvinists who noticed the physical
displays of affection between him and the king and alleged that
Lennox "went about to draw the King to carnal lust".
In August 1582, in what became known as the Ruthven Raid, the
Protestant earls of Gowrie and Angus lured James into Ruthven Castle,
imprisoned him, and forced Lennox to leave Scotland. During James's
imprisonment (19 September 1582), John Craig, whom the king had
personally appointed royal chaplain in 1579, rebuked him so sharply
from the pulpit for having issued a proclamation so offensive to the
clergy "that the king wept".
After James was liberated in June 1583,
he assumed increasing control of his kingdom. He pushed through the
Black Acts to assert royal authority over the Kirk, and denounced the
writings of his former tutor Buchanan. Between 1584 and 1603, he
established effective royal government and relative peace among the
lords, ably assisted by John Maitland of Thirlestane, who led the
government until 1592. An eight-man commission known as the Octavians
brought some control over the ruinous state of James's finances in
1596, but it drew opposition from vested interests. It was disbanded
within a year after a riot in Edinburgh, which was stoked by
anti-Catholicism and led the court to withdraw to Linlithgow
temporarily.
One last Scottish attempt against the
king's person occurred in August 1600, when James was apparently
assaulted by Alexander Ruthven, the Earl of Gowrie's younger brother,
at Gowrie House, the seat of the Ruthvens. Ruthven was run through by
James's page John Ramsay, and the Earl of Gowrie was killed in the
ensuing fracas; there were few surviving witnesses. Given James's
history with the Ruthvens and the fact that he owed them a great deal
of money, his account of the circumstances was not universally
believed.
In 1586, James signed the Treaty of
Berwick with England. That and his mother's execution in 1587, which
he denounced as a "preposterous and strange procedure",
helped clear the way for his succession south of the border. Queen
Elizabeth was unmarried and childless, and James was her most likely
successor. Securing the English succession became a cornerstone of
his policy. During the Spanish Armada crisis of 1588, he assured
Elizabeth of his support as "your natural son and compatriot
of your country". Elizabeth sent James an annual subsidy
from 1586 which gave her some leverage over affairs in Scotland.
Marriage
Throughout his youth, James was praised
for his chastity, since he showed little interest in women. After the
loss of Lennox, he continued to prefer male company. A suitable
marriage, however, was necessary to reinforce his monarchy, and the
choice fell on fourteen-year-old Anne of Denmark, younger daughter of
Protestant Frederick II. Shortly after a proxy marriage in Copenhagen
in August 1589, Anne sailed for Scotland but was forced by storms to
the coast of Norway. On hearing that the crossing had been abandoned,
James sailed from Leith with a 300-strong retinue to fetch Anne
personally in what historian David Harris Willson called "the
one romantic episode of his life". The couple were married
formally at the Bishop's Palace in Oslo on 23 November. James
received a dowry of 75,000 Danish dalers and a gift of 10,000 dalers
from his mother-in-law, Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow. After stays
at Elsinore and Copenhagen and a meeting with Tycho Brahe, James and
Anne returned to Scotland on 1 May 1590. By all accounts, James was
at first infatuated with Anne and, in the early years of their
marriage, seems always to have shown her patience and affection. The
royal couple produced three children who survived to adulthood: Henry
Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died of typhoid fever in 1612, aged
18; Elizabeth, later queen of Bohemia; and Charles, James's
successor. Anne died before her husband in March 1619.
Witch hunts
James's visit to Denmark, a country
familiar with witch-hunts, sparked an interest in the study of
witchcraft, which he considered a branch of theology. He attended the
North Berwick witch trials, the first major persecution of witches in
Scotland under the Witchcraft Act 1563. Several people were convicted
of using witchcraft to send storms against James's ship, most notably
Agnes Sampson.
James became concerned with the threat
posed by witches and wrote Daemonologie in 1597, a tract inspired by
his personal involvement that opposed the practice of witchcraft and
that provided background material for Shakespeare's Macbeth. James
personally supervised the torture of women accused of being witches.
After 1599, his views became more skeptical. In a later letter
written in England to his son Henry, James congratulates the prince
on "the discovery of yon little counterfeit wench. I pray God
ye may be my heir in such discoveries ... most miracles now-a-days
prove but illusions, and ye may see by this how wary judges should be
in trusting accusations".
Highlands and Islands
The forcible dissolution of the
Lordship of the Isles by James IV of Scotland in 1493 had led to
troubled times for the western seaboard. James IV had subdued the
organized military might of the Hebrides, but he and his immediate
successors lacked the will or ability to provide an alternative form
of governance. As a result, the 16th century became known as linn nan
creach, the time of raids. Furthermore, the effects of the
Reformation were slow to affect the GÃ idhealtachd, driving a
religious wedge between this area and centers of political control in
the Central Belt.
In 1540, James V had toured the
Hebrides, forcing the clan chiefs to accompany him. There followed a
period of peace, but the clans were soon at loggerheads with one
another again. During James VI's reign, the citizens of the Hebrides
were portrayed as lawless barbarians rather than being the cradle of
Scottish Christianity and nationhood. Official documents describe the
peoples of the Highlands as "void of the knawledge and feir
of God" who were prone to "all kynd of barbarous and
bestile cruelteis". The Gaelic language, spoken fluently by
James IV and probably by James V, became known in the time of James
VI as "Erse" or Irish, implying that it was foreign
in nature. Parliament decided that Gaelic had become a principal
cause of the Highlanders' shortcomings and sought to abolish it.
Scottish gold coin from 1609–1625
It was against this background that
James VI authorized the "Gentleman Adventurers of Fife"
to civilize the "most barbarous Isle of Lewis" in
1598. James wrote that the colonists were to act "not by
agreement" with the local inhabitants, but "by
extirpation of thame". Their landing at Stornoway began
well, but the colonists were driven out by local forces commanded by
Murdoch and Neil MacLeod. The colonists tried again in 1605 with the
same result, although a third attempt in 1607 was more successful.
The Statutes of Iona were enacted in 1609, which required clan chiefs
to provide support for Protestant ministers to Highland parishes; to
outlaw bards; to report regularly to Edinburgh to answer for their
actions; and to send their heirs to Lowland Scotland, to be educated
in English-speaking Protestant schools. So began a process
"specifically aimed at the extirpation of the Gaelic
language, the destruction of its traditional culture and the
suppression of its bearers."
In the Northern Isles, James's cousin
Patrick Stewart, 2nd Earl of Orkney, resisted the Statutes of Iona
and was consequently imprisoned. His natural son Robert led an
unsuccessful rebellion against James, and the Earl and his son were
hanged. Their estates were forfeited, and the Orkney and Shetland
islands were annexed to the Crown.
Theory of monarchy
In 1597–98, James wrote The True Law
of Free Monarchies and Basilikon Doron (Royal Gift), in which he
argues a theological basis for monarchy. In the True Law, he sets out
the divine right of kings, explaining that kings are higher beings
than other men for Biblical reasons, though "the highest
bench is the sliddriest to sit upon". The document proposes
an absolutist theory of monarchy, by which a king may impose new laws
by royal prerogative but must also pay heed to tradition and to God,
who would "stirre up such scourges as pleaseth him, for
punishment of wicked kings".
Basilikon Doron was written as a book
of instruction for the four-year-old Prince Henry and provides a more
practical guide to kingship. The work is considered to be well
written and perhaps the best example of James's prose. James's advice
concerning parliaments, which he understood as merely the king's
"head court", foreshadows his difficulties with the
English House of Commons: "Hold no Parliaments," he
tells Henry, "but for the necesitie of new Lawes, which would
be but seldome". In the True Law, James maintains that the
king owns his realm as a feudal lord owns his fief, because kings
arose "before any estates or ranks of men, before any
parliaments were holden, or laws made, and by them was the land
distributed, which at first was wholly theirs. And so it follows of
necessity that kings were the authors and makers of the laws, and not
the laws of the kings."
Literary patronage
In the 1580s and 1590s, James promoted
the literature of his native country. He published his treatise Some
Rules and Cautions to be Observed and Eschewed in Scottish Prosody in
1584 at the age of 18. It was both a poetic manual and a description
of the poetic tradition in his mother tongue of Scots, applying
Renaissance principles. He also made statutory provision to reform
and promote the teaching of music, seeing the two in connection. One
act of his reign urges the Scottish burghs to reform and support the
teaching of music in Sang Sculis.
In furtherance of these aims, James was
both patron and head of a loose circle of Scottish Jacobean court
poets and musicians known as the Castalian Band, which included
William Fowler and Alexander Montgomerie among others, Montgomerie
being a favorite of the king. James was himself a poet, and was happy
to be seen as a practicing member of the group.
By the late 1590s, James's championing
of native Scottish tradition was reduced to some extent by the
increasing likelihood of his succession to the English throne.
William Alexander and other courtier poets started to anglicize their
written language, and followed the king to London after 1603. James's
role as active literary participant and patron made him a defining
figure in many respects for English Renaissance poetry and drama,
which reached a pinnacle of achievement in his reign, but his
patronage of the high style in the Scottish tradition, which included
his ancestor James I of Scotland, became largely sidelined.
Accession in England
From 1601, in the last years of
Elizabeth's life, certain English politicians—notably her chief
minister Sir Robert Cecil—maintained a secret correspondence with
James to prepare in advance for a smooth succession. With the queen
clearly dying, Cecil sent James a draft proclamation of his accession
to the English throne in March 1603. Elizabeth died in the early
hours of 24 March, and James was proclaimed king in London later the
same day.
On 5 April, James left Edinburgh for
London, promising to return every three years (a promise that he did
not keep), and progressed slowly southwards. Local lords received him
with lavish hospitality along the route and James was amazed by the
wealth of his new land and subjects, claiming that he was "swapping
a stony couch for a deep feather bed". James arrived in the
capital on 7 May, nine days after Elizabeth's funeral. His new
subjects flocked to see him, relieved that the succession had
triggered neither unrest nor invasion. On arrival at London, he was
mobbed by a crowd of spectators.
James's English coronation took place
on 25 July at Westminster Abbey. An outbreak of plague restricted
festivities. The Royal Entry to London with elaborate allegories
provided by dramatic poets such as Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson was
deferred to 15 March 1604. Dekker wrote that "the streets
seemed to be paved with men; stalls instead of rich wares were set
out with children; open casements filled up with women".
The kingdom to which James succeeded,
however, had its problems. Monopolies and taxation had engendered a
widespread sense of grievance, and the costs of war in Ireland had
become a heavy burden on the government, which had debts of £400,000.
Early reign in England
James survived two conspiracies in the
first year of his reign, despite the smoothness of the succession and
the warmth of his welcome: the Bye Plot and Main Plot, which led to
the arrest of Lord Cobham and Sir Walter Raleigh, among others. Those
hoping for a change in government from James were disappointed at
first when he kept Elizabeth's Privy Councilors in office, as
secretly planned with Cecil, but James soon added long-time supporter
Henry Howard and his nephew Thomas Howard to the Privy Council, as
well as five Scottish nobles.
In the early years of James's reign,
the day-to-day running of the government was tightly managed by the
shrewd Cecil, later Earl of Salisbury, ably assisted by the
experienced Thomas Egerton, whom James made Baron Ellesmere and Lord
Chancellor, and by Thomas Sackville, soon Earl of Dorset, who
continued as Lord Treasurer. As a consequence, James was free to
concentrate on bigger issues, such as a scheme for a closer union
between England and Scotland and matters of foreign policy, as well
as to enjoy his leisure pursuits, particularly hunting.
James was ambitious to build on the
personal union of the Crowns of Scotland and England to establish a
single country under one monarch, one parliament, and one law, a plan
that met opposition in both realms. "Hath He not made us all
in one island," James told the English Parliament,
"compassed with one sea and of itself by nature indivisible?"
In April 1604, however, the Commons refused his request to be titled
"King of Great Britain" on legal grounds. In October
1604, he assumed the title "King of Great Britain"
instead of "King of England" and "King of
Scotland", though Sir Francis Bacon told him that he could
not use the style in "any legal proceeding, instrument or
assurance" and the title was not used on English statutes.
James forced the Scottish Parliament to use it, and it was used on
proclamations, coinage, letters, and treaties in both realms.
James achieved more success in foreign
policy. Never having been at war with Spain, he devoted his efforts
to bringing the long Anglo–Spanish War to an end, and a peace
treaty was signed between the two countries in August 1604, thanks to
the skilled diplomacy of the delegation, in particular Robert Cecil
and Henry Howard, now Earl of Northampton. James celebrated the
treaty by hosting a great banquet. Freedom of worship for Catholics
in England, however, continued to be a major objective of Spanish
policy, causing constant dilemmas for James, distrusted abroad for
repression of Catholics while at home being encouraged by the Privy
Council to show even less tolerance towards them.
Gunpowder Plot
A dissident Catholic, Guy Fawkes, was
discovered in the cellars of the parliament buildings on the night of
4–5 November 1605, the eve of the state opening of the second
session of James's first English Parliament. Fawkes was guarding a
pile of wood not far from 36 barrels of gunpowder. Some politicians,
scared of Catholics, assumed he intended to use the barrels to blow
up Parliament House the following day and cause the destruction, as
James put it, "not only ... of my person, nor of my wife and
posterity also, but of the whole body of the State in general".
The sensational discovery of the "Gunpowder Plot,"
as it quickly became known, aroused a mood of national relief at the
delivery of the king and his sons. The Earl of Salisbury exploited
this to extract higher subsidies from the ensuing Parliament than any
but one granted to Elizabeth. Fawkes and other implicated minorities
were tortured and executed.